Learning Objectives: 

1. For truly elective surgery, weight the benefits (of the operation) against the post-test probably of cardiac complications after surgery

2. Determine if there are opportunities to reduce the post-test probability of cardiac complications after surgery by modifying preoperative or intraoperative care

3. Describe the growing knowledge regarding the physiology of the postoperative stress response and its relationship to postoperative cardiac complications in developing strategies to minimize postoperative complications. Understand the risks and benefits of treatments